Reported Speech

If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the speaker’s exact words (direct speech), but reported (or indirect) speech. Therefore, you need to learn how to transform direct speech into reported speech. The structure is a little different depending on whether you want to transform a statement, question or request. Look at the following sentences:

A) Annie said: "I want to stop playing."
B) Annie asked: "Do you want to stop playing."
C) Annie shouted: "Stop playing!"

These sentences give us an example of three different types of sentences: statements (sentence A), questions (sentence B) and commands or requests (sentence C). Let's see now how we transform these types of sentences into reported speech:

A') Annie said that she wanted to stop playing.
B') Annie asked if I wanted to stop playing.
C') Annie told me to stop playing.


Statements
When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:
■ pronouns
■ present tense verbs (3rd person singular)
■ tenses (backshift)
■ place and time expressions

Pronouns
In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what. Example:
She says, “My mum doesn’t have time today.” 
She says that her mum doesn’t have time today.

Tenses
A) No backshift:  Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Present (e. g. He says). Note, however, that you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person singular).
He says, “I speak English.” 
He says that he speaks English.

B) Backshift: You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Past (e. g. He said). This is called backshift, that is, a step back in time:
He said, “I am happy.”
He said that he was happy.
 

The verbs could, should, would, might, must, needn’t, ought to, used to do not normally change.

He said, “She might be right.” 

He said that she might be right.

Place and Time expressions

For place and time expressions you have to check whether place and time are the same in direct and reported speech or not. If they are the same, there is no change from direct to reported speech. However, if they are different, a change of referent must occur. Therefore you always have to think which place and time expressions are logical in a certain situation. In the following table, you will find ways of transforming place and time expressions into reported speech:

An example:
Anne said: "I saw Caroline here today."
Anne said that she had seen Caroline there that day.

Questions
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:
■ pronouns
■ present tense verbs (3rd person singular)
■ place and time expressions
■ tenses (backshift)

The same as for statements applies for questions. Also note that you have to:
■ transform the question into an indirect question
■ use the interrogative pronoun (for wh-questions) or if / whether (for yes/no questions)

It is also important that you use an indirect question in reported speech, i.e. after the interrogative pronoun or whether / if,  you continue the sentence as if it were a statement (subject-verb etc.). The auxiliary verb do is not used in indirect questions:
He asked: "Where does she live?" 
He asked where she lived.

Commands, Requests and Advice
When transforming commands, check whether you have to change:
■ pronouns
■ place and time expressions

For pronouns and place or time expressions see statements in reported speech. Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use a to-infinite verb in the following pattern:
[Subj + verb + Object + To infinitive]

The introductory verbs when reporting command are, among others, tell, advise, ask, order, command, urge, and so on.
Examples:
She said, "Say hello to your mum." 
She asked me to say hello to my mum.
The teacher said: "Open your books, please."
The teacher told us to open our books.

For negative requests or commands, use not to + infinite verb.
He said, "Don’t give up, Bob."
He advised Bob not to give up.

The expression Let’s + infinitive is usually reported using the verb suggest. In this case, there are various possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should:
Example:
"Let’s go to the cinema," he said.
He suggested going to the cinema / He suggested that we should go to the cinema.


Practice:
Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4, Exercise5, Exercise6.

Conditional Sentences

Hello pupils!

Today we are going to talk about conditional sentences. Conditional sentences are also known as conditional clauses or If-clauses. They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are four types of conditional sentences: Zero conditional (Type 0), First conditional (Type I), Second conditional (Type II) and Third conditional (Type III). Traditionally, zero conditionals and first conditionals are grouped together into the First conditional type, but we are going to study them apart.

Zero Conditional
The zero conditional is a structure used for talking about general truths, or scientific facts, that is, things which always happen under certain conditions. Therefore, the condition is called real condition. A zero conditional sentence consists of two clauses, a subordinate clause (or if-clause) and a main clause. Present Simple is the tense used in both clauses: [if + Present Simple] + [Present Simple].

For example:
If you cross an international date line, the time changes.
Phosphorus burns if you expose it to air.
If you don't water plants, they die.

See, when the if-clause comes first, a comma is usually used. If the if-clause comes second, there is no need for a comma. Note that most zero conditional sentences will mean the same thing if when is used instead of if. For example:
Phosphorus burns when you expose it to air.
When you don't water plants, they die.


First Conditional
The first conditional (conveying the so-called open conditions) is a structure used for talking about possibilities in the present or in the future. Present Simple is used in the subordinate clause whereas future with will is used in the main clause: [if + Present Simple] + [will + infinitive].

Examples:
If I have the money, I will buy this car.
If it's sunny, we'll go to the park.
Peter will be sad if Susan leaves.
If you cook dinner, I'll wash the dishes.

Among other variations, can and imperative are also possible instead of will:
If it doesn't rain, we can go to the beach.
If you drink alcohol, don't drive.
You can pass the subject if you resit the exam.
Call me if you arrive late.

Remember that unless is often used instead of if in a negative clause:
You'll get wet in the rain if you don't take an umbrella with you.
You'll get wet in the rain unless you take an umbrella with you.


Second Conditional
The second conditional (also referred to as unreal, hypothetical or theoretical conditions) is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the present or in the future. Past Simple is used in the subordinate clause and Present Conditional is employed in the main clause:
[if + Past Simple] + [would + infinitive].

Examples:
If I had the money, I would buy this car.
If dogs had wings, they would be able to fly.
Paula would be sad if Jan left.
I'd pass my exams if I studied harder.

When the verb in the subordinate clause is to be, we use a unique form were for all persons. This is characteristic of British English. In American English, however, was and were forms are admitted.
If I were you, I would drive more carefully in the rain.  (AmE: If I was you...)
I would buy an island on the Pacific If I were rich.  (AmE: ... if I was rich.)

Other variations include could or might instead of would:
If I were President Obama I could rule the world.
If it didn't rain we might go to the concert. 


Third Conditional
The third conditional (expressing past hypothetical conditions) is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the past. In other words, it is used to talk about things which did not happen in the past and therefore they are impossible to carry out now. In the if-clause we use Past Perfect, and in the main clause Perfect Conditional is used: [if + Past Perfect] + [would have + past participle].

Examples:
If I had had the money, I would have bought this Audi.
If you had driven more carefully, you would not have had an accident.
If we had played a little better, we would have won the game.

Other variations include could have and might have instead of would have:
If we had played a little better, we could have won the game.
I might have spoken a perfect English if my grandma had married an Englishman.



Practice:
Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4, Exercise5, Exercise6.

Would you like to listen to it?

Diagnostic Tests

These days we have the tedious but really necessary diagnostic tests that the Government of Andalusia demand schools for our students to take. Here I'll leave you a funny animation video about general knowledge tests for kids in Canada. Enjoy watching it!

Causative Have

Have Something Done

Causative have is formed by the subject followed by the verb have conjugated in any tense, then the object, and finally the past participle of the main verb. Therefore, the pattern is:

[Subj + have + object + pp]

1) We use a causative construction when arranging for someone to do something for us. In this type of sentences the subject is not the doer of the action, but the one that orders the action on his or her benefit; in other words, it's the one that causes the action.

 Look at the following set of examples:
(A) They repaired their car.  (active construction)
(B) They had their car repaired. (causative construction)
(C) I cut my hair yesterday. (active construction)
(D) I had my hair cut yesterday. (causative construction)

In instances A and C, the subjects carry out the action expressed by the verbs, that's to say, they repaired their car themselves and I cut my hair myself.  However, in sentences B and D, the subjects do not do anything but order someone else to carry out the actions, namely they arranged for the mechanic to repair the car and I arranged for the hairdresser to cut myself.

More examples:
I am having my room cleaned (I'm not cleaning it myself, I'm making someone else clean it)
My parents have had their house painted (they haven't painted it themselves, they called the painters)
John is going to have his office redecorated (he isn't going to do it, he pays a specialist to do it)

We also use causative have when someone does something to us:
Bill is going to have his money stolen. 
I had my computer broken by my little brother.

Like in the passive voice, the agent must be elided when obvious, not necessary or unimportant. Look at these examples of the three sorts of structures, active, passive and causative.
Active: I will build my new house (I'll make it myself, I'm not going to hire anyone to build it)
Passive: My new house will be built by me (same meaning as above)
Causative: I will have my new house built (I won't build it myself, I paid for the builders to make it)

You see, in the passive sentence the by-phrase is present because it's not common that one builds their own house, so the agent is not obvious, thus necessary. However, in the causative example the agent is omitted because it's normal that builders build buildings, so it is an obvious, unnecessary agent.


Get Something Done

Get is possible instead of have, usually in informal spoken English. The pattern is equal to the have one:

[Subj + get + object + pp]

Examples:
You'll get your hair styled next weekend
I'm going to get my car fixed tomorrow
She got her house painted last year
I get my nails done once a week


Have Someone Do Something

Especially in American English, we can use this construction to talk about giving instructions or orders. In British English make or send is preferred instead of have. The pattern is:

[Subj + have + indirect obj + infinitive + direct obj]

For instance:
I had my assistant type the report (= in BrE, I sent my assistant type the report)
I'll have my lawyer look into it (= in BrE, I'll make my lawyer look into it)


Practice:
Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4.

Passive Voice

Usage
The active voice of a verb is used when the subject of the verb refers to the person or thing performing the action described by the verb. In contrast, the passive voice of a verb is used when the subject of the verb refers to the person or thing receiving the action described by the verb. Only a verb which can take an object, i.e. a transitive verb, can be put into the passive voice.

The Passive Voice is more commonly used in English than it is in other European languages such as Spanish or French. As well as being used in everyday English, the passive voice is used extensively in official documents and scientific papers. 

Formation
In the following examples, the verbs in the passive voice are boldtyped:
Active: The boy struck the ball.
Passive: The ball was struck by the boy.
Active: The explorers have found gold.
Passive:Gold has been found by the explorers.

In these examples, the verbs was struck and has been found are in the passive voice. The subjects ball and gold refer to things receiving the actions described by the verbs.

For every tense in the active voice, there is a corresponding tense in the passive voice. In the passive voice, the verb to be acts as an auxiliary. The passive voice tenses of an English verb are formed from the corresponding conjugations of to be, followed by the past participle of the verb.
 

Observe:
The wind is rippling the water > the water is being rippled by the wind
The child's going to open the parcel > The parcel is going to be opened by the child

It should be noted that, when changing the voice of a verb in a sentence while preserving the meaning of the sentence, it is necessary to make sure that the verb agrees with its new subject.
The squirrel ate the nuts > The nuts were eaten by the squirrel
The boys are mowing the lawn > The lawn is being mowed by the boys


Two-object Structures
When a verb in the active voice takes both a direct object and an indirect object (ditransitive constructions), either object can become the subject of the verb when the verb is put into the passive voice, and the meaning of the sentence is preserved. The object which does not become the subject remains as an object. When a verb in the passive voice takes an indirect object, the indirect object is usually preceded by a preposition. However, the preferable and most common construction is using the indirect object as the passive subject:
Active: The guide will show you the museum.
Passive1: You will be shown the museum by the guide.
Passive2: The museum will be shown to you by the guide.

Omission of the Agent
It has been estimated that only 15 to 20 percent of passive sentences mention the agent (in a phrase with by). We do not normally use the by-phrase in the following cases:

1. When the agent is unknown.
My car was stolen. ( I do not know who stole it.)
This table was made in England. (I do not know who made it.)

2. When the agent is obvious or unimportant.
A lot of rice is eaten in Japan. (Obviously by the Japanese.)
Oranges are grown in California and Florida. (Obviously by orange growers.)
An incision is made around the optic nerve and the optic nerve is released. (This example is a good illustration of using the passive to emphasize a procedure or process. It is obvious that a surgeon performs the operation. What is important here is what the surgeon must do, not the surgeon himself.)

3. When we do not want to mention the agent.
The administration admitted that mistakes were made in its handling of the affair.
(The administration does not want to blame anybody, or perhaps does not want to accept responsibility, so the by-phrase is not used.)

4. When the agent has been mentioned previously.
Don Quixote was written by Cervantes. It was finished in 1616.
(It was finished by Cervantes, who has already been mentioned.)

Inclusion of the Agent
The agent with by is usually expressed:

1. When the agent is new information.
This is a true story and was told to me by my mother when I was a little boy.
A: I really like the red paint on your car.  B: Thanks. It was painted by my friend Bob.

2. When the agent is not human.
In a shunt motor, speed is controlled by a rheostat connected in series with the field windings.
Most standardised tests are corrected by a computer.

3. When the agent is well known and should be included because it is important information.
The fountain in Lyon, located in front of Lyon's city hall, was designed by Bartholdi, the designer of the Statue of Liberty.


Practice:
Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4, Exercise5.