Reported Speech

If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the speaker’s exact words (direct speech), but reported (or indirect) speech. Therefore, you need to learn how to transform direct speech into reported speech. The structure is a little different depending on whether you want to transform a statement, question or request. Look at the following sentences:

A) Annie said: "I want to stop playing."
B) Annie asked: "Do you want to stop playing."
C) Annie shouted: "Stop playing!"

These sentences give us an example of three different types of sentences: statements (sentence A), questions (sentence B) and commands or requests (sentence C). Let's see now how we transform these types of sentences into reported speech:

A') Annie said that she wanted to stop playing.
B') Annie asked if I wanted to stop playing.
C') Annie told me to stop playing.


Statements
When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:
■ pronouns
■ present tense verbs (3rd person singular)
■ tenses (backshift)
■ place and time expressions

Pronouns
In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what. Example:
She says, “My mum doesn’t have time today.” 
She says that her mum doesn’t have time today.

Tenses
A) No backshift:  Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Present (e. g. He says). Note, however, that you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person singular).
He says, “I speak English.” 
He says that he speaks English.

B) Backshift: You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Past (e. g. He said). This is called backshift, that is, a step back in time:
He said, “I am happy.”
He said that he was happy.
 

The verbs could, should, would, might, must, needn’t, ought to, used to do not normally change.

He said, “She might be right.” 

He said that she might be right.

Place and Time expressions

For place and time expressions you have to check whether place and time are the same in direct and reported speech or not. If they are the same, there is no change from direct to reported speech. However, if they are different, a change of referent must occur. Therefore you always have to think which place and time expressions are logical in a certain situation. In the following table, you will find ways of transforming place and time expressions into reported speech:

An example:
Anne said: "I saw Caroline here today."
Anne said that she had seen Caroline there that day.

Questions
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:
■ pronouns
■ present tense verbs (3rd person singular)
■ place and time expressions
■ tenses (backshift)

The same as for statements applies for questions. Also note that you have to:
■ transform the question into an indirect question
■ use the interrogative pronoun (for wh-questions) or if / whether (for yes/no questions)

It is also important that you use an indirect question in reported speech, i.e. after the interrogative pronoun or whether / if,  you continue the sentence as if it were a statement (subject-verb etc.). The auxiliary verb do is not used in indirect questions:
He asked: "Where does she live?" 
He asked where she lived.

Commands, Requests and Advice
When transforming commands, check whether you have to change:
■ pronouns
■ place and time expressions

For pronouns and place or time expressions see statements in reported speech. Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use a to-infinite verb in the following pattern:
[Subj + verb + Object + To infinitive]

The introductory verbs when reporting command are, among others, tell, advise, ask, order, command, urge, and so on.
Examples:
She said, "Say hello to your mum." 
She asked me to say hello to my mum.
The teacher said: "Open your books, please."
The teacher told us to open our books.

For negative requests or commands, use not to + infinite verb.
He said, "Don’t give up, Bob."
He advised Bob not to give up.

The expression Let’s + infinitive is usually reported using the verb suggest. In this case, there are various possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should:
Example:
"Let’s go to the cinema," he said.
He suggested going to the cinema / He suggested that we should go to the cinema.


Practice:
Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4, Exercise5, Exercise6.

Conditional Sentences

Hello pupils!

Today we are going to talk about conditional sentences. Conditional sentences are also known as conditional clauses or If-clauses. They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are four types of conditional sentences: Zero conditional (Type 0), First conditional (Type I), Second conditional (Type II) and Third conditional (Type III). Traditionally, zero conditionals and first conditionals are grouped together into the First conditional type, but we are going to study them apart.

Zero Conditional
The zero conditional is a structure used for talking about general truths, or scientific facts, that is, things which always happen under certain conditions. Therefore, the condition is called real condition. A zero conditional sentence consists of two clauses, a subordinate clause (or if-clause) and a main clause. Present Simple is the tense used in both clauses: [if + Present Simple] + [Present Simple].

For example:
If you cross an international date line, the time changes.
Phosphorus burns if you expose it to air.
If you don't water plants, they die.

See, when the if-clause comes first, a comma is usually used. If the if-clause comes second, there is no need for a comma. Note that most zero conditional sentences will mean the same thing if when is used instead of if. For example:
Phosphorus burns when you expose it to air.
When you don't water plants, they die.


First Conditional
The first conditional (conveying the so-called open conditions) is a structure used for talking about possibilities in the present or in the future. Present Simple is used in the subordinate clause whereas future with will is used in the main clause: [if + Present Simple] + [will + infinitive].

Examples:
If I have the money, I will buy this car.
If it's sunny, we'll go to the park.
Peter will be sad if Susan leaves.
If you cook dinner, I'll wash the dishes.

Among other variations, can and imperative are also possible instead of will:
If it doesn't rain, we can go to the beach.
If you drink alcohol, don't drive.
You can pass the subject if you resit the exam.
Call me if you arrive late.

Remember that unless is often used instead of if in a negative clause:
You'll get wet in the rain if you don't take an umbrella with you.
You'll get wet in the rain unless you take an umbrella with you.


Second Conditional
The second conditional (also referred to as unreal, hypothetical or theoretical conditions) is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the present or in the future. Past Simple is used in the subordinate clause and Present Conditional is employed in the main clause:
[if + Past Simple] + [would + infinitive].

Examples:
If I had the money, I would buy this car.
If dogs had wings, they would be able to fly.
Paula would be sad if Jan left.
I'd pass my exams if I studied harder.

When the verb in the subordinate clause is to be, we use a unique form were for all persons. This is characteristic of British English. In American English, however, was and were forms are admitted.
If I were you, I would drive more carefully in the rain.  (AmE: If I was you...)
I would buy an island on the Pacific If I were rich.  (AmE: ... if I was rich.)

Other variations include could or might instead of would:
If I were President Obama I could rule the world.
If it didn't rain we might go to the concert. 


Third Conditional
The third conditional (expressing past hypothetical conditions) is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the past. In other words, it is used to talk about things which did not happen in the past and therefore they are impossible to carry out now. In the if-clause we use Past Perfect, and in the main clause Perfect Conditional is used: [if + Past Perfect] + [would have + past participle].

Examples:
If I had had the money, I would have bought this Audi.
If you had driven more carefully, you would not have had an accident.
If we had played a little better, we would have won the game.

Other variations include could have and might have instead of would have:
If we had played a little better, we could have won the game.
I might have spoken a perfect English if my grandma had married an Englishman.



Practice:
Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4, Exercise5, Exercise6.

Would you like to listen to it?

Diagnostic Tests

These days we have the tedious but really necessary diagnostic tests that the Government of Andalusia demand schools for our students to take. Here I'll leave you a funny animation video about general knowledge tests for kids in Canada. Enjoy watching it!

Causative Have

Have Something Done

Causative have is formed by the subject followed by the verb have conjugated in any tense, then the object, and finally the past participle of the main verb. Therefore, the pattern is:

[Subj + have + object + pp]

1) We use a causative construction when arranging for someone to do something for us. In this type of sentences the subject is not the doer of the action, but the one that orders the action on his or her benefit; in other words, it's the one that causes the action.

 Look at the following set of examples:
(A) They repaired their car.  (active construction)
(B) They had their car repaired. (causative construction)
(C) I cut my hair yesterday. (active construction)
(D) I had my hair cut yesterday. (causative construction)

In instances A and C, the subjects carry out the action expressed by the verbs, that's to say, they repaired their car themselves and I cut my hair myself.  However, in sentences B and D, the subjects do not do anything but order someone else to carry out the actions, namely they arranged for the mechanic to repair the car and I arranged for the hairdresser to cut myself.

More examples:
I am having my room cleaned (I'm not cleaning it myself, I'm making someone else clean it)
My parents have had their house painted (they haven't painted it themselves, they called the painters)
John is going to have his office redecorated (he isn't going to do it, he pays a specialist to do it)

We also use causative have when someone does something to us:
Bill is going to have his money stolen. 
I had my computer broken by my little brother.

Like in the passive voice, the agent must be elided when obvious, not necessary or unimportant. Look at these examples of the three sorts of structures, active, passive and causative.
Active: I will build my new house (I'll make it myself, I'm not going to hire anyone to build it)
Passive: My new house will be built by me (same meaning as above)
Causative: I will have my new house built (I won't build it myself, I paid for the builders to make it)

You see, in the passive sentence the by-phrase is present because it's not common that one builds their own house, so the agent is not obvious, thus necessary. However, in the causative example the agent is omitted because it's normal that builders build buildings, so it is an obvious, unnecessary agent.


Get Something Done

Get is possible instead of have, usually in informal spoken English. The pattern is equal to the have one:

[Subj + get + object + pp]

Examples:
You'll get your hair styled next weekend
I'm going to get my car fixed tomorrow
She got her house painted last year
I get my nails done once a week


Have Someone Do Something

Especially in American English, we can use this construction to talk about giving instructions or orders. In British English make or send is preferred instead of have. The pattern is:

[Subj + have + indirect obj + infinitive + direct obj]

For instance:
I had my assistant type the report (= in BrE, I sent my assistant type the report)
I'll have my lawyer look into it (= in BrE, I'll make my lawyer look into it)


Practice:
Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4.

Passive Voice

Usage
The active voice of a verb is used when the subject of the verb refers to the person or thing performing the action described by the verb. In contrast, the passive voice of a verb is used when the subject of the verb refers to the person or thing receiving the action described by the verb. Only a verb which can take an object, i.e. a transitive verb, can be put into the passive voice.

The Passive Voice is more commonly used in English than it is in other European languages such as Spanish or French. As well as being used in everyday English, the passive voice is used extensively in official documents and scientific papers. 

Formation
In the following examples, the verbs in the passive voice are boldtyped:
Active: The boy struck the ball.
Passive: The ball was struck by the boy.
Active: The explorers have found gold.
Passive:Gold has been found by the explorers.

In these examples, the verbs was struck and has been found are in the passive voice. The subjects ball and gold refer to things receiving the actions described by the verbs.

For every tense in the active voice, there is a corresponding tense in the passive voice. In the passive voice, the verb to be acts as an auxiliary. The passive voice tenses of an English verb are formed from the corresponding conjugations of to be, followed by the past participle of the verb.
 

Observe:
The wind is rippling the water > the water is being rippled by the wind
The child's going to open the parcel > The parcel is going to be opened by the child

It should be noted that, when changing the voice of a verb in a sentence while preserving the meaning of the sentence, it is necessary to make sure that the verb agrees with its new subject.
The squirrel ate the nuts > The nuts were eaten by the squirrel
The boys are mowing the lawn > The lawn is being mowed by the boys


Two-object Structures
When a verb in the active voice takes both a direct object and an indirect object (ditransitive constructions), either object can become the subject of the verb when the verb is put into the passive voice, and the meaning of the sentence is preserved. The object which does not become the subject remains as an object. When a verb in the passive voice takes an indirect object, the indirect object is usually preceded by a preposition. However, the preferable and most common construction is using the indirect object as the passive subject:
Active: The guide will show you the museum.
Passive1: You will be shown the museum by the guide.
Passive2: The museum will be shown to you by the guide.

Omission of the Agent
It has been estimated that only 15 to 20 percent of passive sentences mention the agent (in a phrase with by). We do not normally use the by-phrase in the following cases:

1. When the agent is unknown.
My car was stolen. ( I do not know who stole it.)
This table was made in England. (I do not know who made it.)

2. When the agent is obvious or unimportant.
A lot of rice is eaten in Japan. (Obviously by the Japanese.)
Oranges are grown in California and Florida. (Obviously by orange growers.)
An incision is made around the optic nerve and the optic nerve is released. (This example is a good illustration of using the passive to emphasize a procedure or process. It is obvious that a surgeon performs the operation. What is important here is what the surgeon must do, not the surgeon himself.)

3. When we do not want to mention the agent.
The administration admitted that mistakes were made in its handling of the affair.
(The administration does not want to blame anybody, or perhaps does not want to accept responsibility, so the by-phrase is not used.)

4. When the agent has been mentioned previously.
Don Quixote was written by Cervantes. It was finished in 1616.
(It was finished by Cervantes, who has already been mentioned.)

Inclusion of the Agent
The agent with by is usually expressed:

1. When the agent is new information.
This is a true story and was told to me by my mother when I was a little boy.
A: I really like the red paint on your car.  B: Thanks. It was painted by my friend Bob.

2. When the agent is not human.
In a shunt motor, speed is controlled by a rheostat connected in series with the field windings.
Most standardised tests are corrected by a computer.

3. When the agent is well known and should be included because it is important information.
The fountain in Lyon, located in front of Lyon's city hall, was designed by Bartholdi, the designer of the Statue of Liberty.


Practice:
Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4, Exercise5.

Modal Verbs (III)

Expressing Obligation and Advice

Regarding modal auxiliary verbs, we can express obligation by using either must or have to. Sometimes they both can be used to mean the same thing, but there is a significant difference: generally we use must for expressing personal feelings and we use have to for facts. Therefore, if the obligation is internal and personal then we use must, but if it is an external obligation that is imposed by other people, authorities, rules or laws, then use have to.

Examples:
a) My bedroom walls are horrible. I must paint them as soon as possible.
b) I must brush my teeth twice a day to keep them healthy.
c) You have to turn off your mobile phone in a museum.
d) I have to take an exam to enter that college.

In sentences (a,b) we use must because the obligation here is personal, nobody forces us to paint the walls or clean our teeth. However, in sentences (c,d) have to is used because it is the rules in museums and in that college that oblige us to turn mobiles off and to take entry exams.

Also, must is only used for present and future situations, we use the forms of have to for the past and other verbal forms like the infinitive or past participle. For example:
Today I must study for tomorrow's exam. (present situation)
Tomorrow I must wash my car. (future situation)
Yesterday I had to study for an English exam. (past situation)

Remember that must is just the form of present simple, so we need the forms of have to for the formation of the rest of tenses:
I must go - I had to go - I will have to go - I have had to go, etc.

Finally, don't forget that when the speaker imposes an obligation we use must, and when the speaker does not impose any obligation, but he merely informs an obligation that already exists, we use have to:

Teacher to students:
You must do your homework. (The teacher obliges the students to do it)
Student to mother:
I have to do my homework. (The student just transmits his obligation) 

To express advice we use should or ought to. Both modal verbs mean the same thing, although should does not only express advice but it is also employed as a modal for formal invitation and offering. In this sense, ought to is more formal than should, and at the same time it makes reference to laws and social rules, whereas should rather conveys personal feelings or opinions.  For further information and a more extensive explanation of the usage of these two verbs, just read this article. Must is also used as a modal verb expressing advice in a more emphatic way.

Look at these examples:
You should stop smoking. (a personal piece of advice)
You must stop smoking. (not obligation, but emphatic advice)
You ought to wear a helmet when you ride a bike. (advice concerning the law)

The negative forms of these verbs are shouldn't and oughtn't to.
You oughtn't drink when you drive.
We shouldn't watch that film.


Expressing Prohibition and Lack of Obligation

Prohibition is conveyed by mustn't and lack of obligation by don't have to and needn't. So, don't have to and needn't -which mean exactly the same thing- express the idea that something is not required or necessary, it is however possible if so desired. On the other hand, mustn't expresses the idea that something is forbidden, you cannot do it otherwise you will be punished or something bad will happen to you.

Observe:
You mustn't talk in class. (It's prohibited)
We don't have to come to the office tomorrow. (It's not necessary)
We needn't come tomorrow. (It's not necessary)



Practice:
Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4, Exercise5.

Modal Verbs (II)

Expressing Possibility and Deduction

Possibility is conveyed by using some expressions like perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, unlikely, improbably, surely and certainly, but also by means of modal verbs such as must, may, could, might and can't.

Possibility can be divided into three categories: certainty, possibility, impossibility. The use of these modals will be ranged according to these three parts, namely must for certainty (100%), may for possibility (50%), could or might for probability (25%) and can't for impossibility (0%).

Look at these examples:
a) Peter must be at the office (= Surely he is at the office).
     Pedro debe de estar en la oficina.
b) Peter may be at the office (= Probably he is at the office).
     Puede que Pedro esté en la oficina.
c) Peter might be at the office (= Unlikely, he is at the office).
     Pudiera ser que Pedro estuviera en la oficina.
d) Peter can't be at the office (= Surely, he is not at the office).
     Pedro no puede estar en la oficina.

In sentence (a) the chance that Peter is at the office is very big, maximum indeed 100%, we are completely sure that this is so. In (b) and (c) there is a possibility that Peter is not at the office, higher in (b) with a 50% and more remote in (c) with a 25% of certainty. And in (d), finally, we are sure that Peter is not at the office (0%), so it is impossible.

Logical deduction can be either positive or negative. Positive deduction is expressed with must and negative deduction with can't.  Observe these two situations:

Everyday my father gets home at 5 p.m.
Now it's five o'clock, and someone is knocking at the door. It must be my father.
Now it's two o'clock, and someone is knocking at the door. It can't be my father.

All this refers to present and future situations. For past situations perfect modals are used, but we will leave them for later, or probably next year.

Practice:
Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4.

Modal Verbs (I)

Main Characteristics

Modals are special verbs which behave very irregularly in English. These verbs have common features, which are:

1) They don't need auxiliary verbs for questions and negatives (except 'have to'):
     I can't go to the party.
     Should I give up smoking?
     You don't have to come tomorrow. (exception)

2) They go with a bare infinitive, that is, an infinitive without 'to' (except 'have to' and 'ought to'):
      They could play rugby.
      He might come home next weekend.
      She ought to use a seat belt when she drives. (exception)

3) They don't agree in the 3rd person singular present simple:
     She can play the violin beautifully
     She cans play the flute. (error!)


Expressing Ability and Permission

One possibility of expressing ability and permission is by means of the modal auxiliary verbs can and could, the first one in the present simple and the second one in the past simple and conditional. For other tenses, we need the different forms of be able to for ability and be allowed to for permission. Look at these examples below.

Ability:
When I was eight, I could speak good English.
They can play the piano and the keyboard.
Jennifer will be able to pass the year.
I've never been able to ride a motorbike.

Permission:
We couldn't be late on Saturday nights when we were teenagers.
You can go to the toilet now.
She will be allowed to enter without a ticket.
The children haven't been allowed to play in the gardens.

When asking for permission, leaving aside the differences in use of present and past time, we must also have in mind politeness or courtesy, in other words, formality, where can is less polite than could.
Could I borrow your pen, please?
Can I ask you a question?

May is possible as well when expressing permission, just like could but may is even more formal and polite, and especially used in requests:
May I see your identity card, Sir?
You may leave now if you wish.

Don't forget a thing: when translating can/could, if it expresses permission, just use the forms of 'poder' but if it conveys ability then use the paradigm of 'saber.'

Practice:
Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3.

Future Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Simple Future cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc.
Instead of Simple Future, Simple Present is used. Look at these examples:  
As soon as I get home, I'll phone you.  
When you arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner.  
While Peter is sleeping, they will be playing with their Playstation.  
By the time the teacher comes in, we'll have finished our tasks.

Practice: Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3.

Expressing the Future

Future can be expressed by means of six different tenses in English: Will-future, Going to-future, present simple, present continuous, future continuous and future perfect. In class we thoroughly studied the different possibilities of tense choice according to the needs of communication and usage. In this post you have a summary of all you need concerning the expression of future time.

A) [WILL + infinitive]: The future with 'will' is used for predictions, opinions, voluntary actions and promises, and sudden decisions. Observe these examples and compare:  
In 2150 people will live in a new planet. (prediction)
The film 'Zenith' will win several Academy awards. (prediction)  
I think my brother will come round for dinner this evening. (opinion)  
We hope you won't fail your final exams. (opinion)
I promise I will not tell anybody your secret. (promise)  
I'll study harder this term. (promise)  
I won't go with you today. (spontaneous decision)  
You look ill, I'll take you to the doctor's. (spontaneous decision)

B) [AM/IS/ARE GOING TO +Infinitive]: The future with 'be going to' is used for general plans and intentions, and predictions with evidence in the present time.
Be careful! You're going to fall off the ladder. (prediction with present evidence)
You failed the test, so you aren't going to pass English. (prediction with evidence) I'm going to give up smoking. (intention)
He isn't going to do a degree in medicine. (general plan)

C) [VERB/VERB+s/es]: The future with Present Simple is used to express timetable future, in other words, scheduled events in the near future. Look at the examples:  
The train to London leaves at 12.35 pm. (scheduled event)
The new theatre opens on July 2. (scheduled event)
What time do we board the plane? (scheduled event)

D) [AM/IS/ARE + Verb-ing]: The future with Present Continuous is used for future arrangements and formal appointments, and near-future plans.  
We're meeting Jane at the cinema at 9 o'clock. (near-future plan)  
I'm seeing the dentist at 5.20 pm. (formal appointment)  
John isn't coming to the party. She's going to a rock concert. (future arrangement)

E) [WILL BE + V-ing]: Future Continuous is used for uninterrupted actions in the future, actions interrupted by time or other actions, parallel future actions and in general it expresses an action that will be happening at a certain moment in the future. Also formal plans.
This time next month I'll be lying on a Caribbean beach. (uninterrupted action)
I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives. (interrupted action)
At midnight tonight we'll still be driving through the desert. (interrupted action)  
While Ellen is reading, Tom will be watching TV. (parallel future action)
Tomorrow morning we will be meeting at the university hall. (formal plan)

F) [WILL HAVE + Past participle]: Future Perfect expresses a completed action before something in the future, that is to say, an action that will be finished at a certain moment in the future. It refers to the past in the future.
By next November I will have received my promotion. (past action in the future)
Come round by 6 a.m., we'll have finished studying. (past action in the future)
By the time I finish this course, I'll have taken ten tests. (past action in the future)

Practice: Exercise 1, Exercise 2, Exercise 3, Exercise 4.

Be my Valentine!

FEBRUARY 14TH: VALENTINE’S DAY
Every February we celebrate Valentine's Day by giving flowers, sweets and cards to those we love. We do this in honour of Saint Valentine. You may be wondering, "Who is Saint Valentine"?
Legend has it that Valentine was a priest who served during third-century Rome. There was an Emperor at that time by the name of Claudius II. Emperor Claudius II decided that single men made better soldiers than those that were married. With this thought in mind he outlawed marriage for young men in hopes of building a stronger military base. Supposedly, Valentine decided this decree just was not fair and chose to marry young couples secretly. When Emperor Claudius II found out about Valentine's actions he had him put to death.
Another legend has it that Valentine was an imprisoned man who fell in love with his jailor's daughter. Before he was put to death he sent the first 'Valentine' himself when he wrote her a letter and signed it 'Your Valentine', words still used on cards today.
Perhaps we'll never know the true identity and story behind the man named St. Valentine, but this much is for sure...February has been the month to celebrate love for a long time, dating clear back to the Middle Ages. In fact, Valentines ranks second only to Christmas in number of greeting cards sent.
Another Valentine gentleman you may be wondering about is Cupid (Latin Cupido, "desire"). In Roman mythology Cupid is the son of Venus, goddess of love. His counterpart in Greek mythology is Eros, god of love. Cupid is often said to be a mischievous boy who goes around wounding both gods and humans with his arrows, causing them to fall in love.

SAINT VALENTINE’S HISTORY
Valentine's Day started in the time of the Roman Empire. In ancient Rome, February 14th was a holiday to honour Juno. Juno was the Queen of the Roman Gods and Goddesses. The Romans also knew her as the Goddess of women and marriage. The following day, February 15th, began the Feast of Lupercalia.
The lives of young boys and girls were strictly separate. However, one of the customs of the young people was name drawing. On the eve of the festival of Lupercalia the names of Roman girls were written on slips of paper and placed into jars. Each young man would draw a girl's name from the jar and would then be partners for the duration of the festival with the girl whom he chose. Sometimes the pairing of the children lasted an entire year, and often, they would fall in love and would later marry.
Under the rule of Emperor Claudius II Rome was involved in many bloody and unpopular campaigns. Claudius the Cruel was having a difficult time getting soldiers to join his military leagues. He believed that the reason was that Roman men did not want to leave their loves or families. As a result, Claudius cancelled all marriages and engagements in Rome. The good Saint Valentine was a priest at Rome in the days of Claudius II. He secretly married couples, and for this kind deed Saint Valentine was apprehended and dragged before the Prefect of Rome, who condemned him to be beaten to death with clubs and to have his head cut off. He suffered martyrdom on the 14th day of February, about the year 270. At that time it was the custom in Rome, a very ancient custom, indeed, to celebrate in the month of February the Lupercalia, feasts in honour of a heathen god. On these occasions, amidst a variety of pagan ceremonies, the names of young women were placed in a box, from which they were drawn by the men as chance directed.
The pastors of the early Christian Church in Rome endeavoured to do away with the pagan element in these feasts by substituting the names of saints for those of maidens. And as the Lupercalia began about the middle of February, the pastors appear to have chosen Saint Valentine's Day for the celebration of this new feast. So it seems that the custom of young men choosing maidens for valentines, or saints as patrons for the coming year, arose in this way.

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Prepositional Verbs

Prepositional verbs are a series of verbs which are included in a group called multi-word verbs, that is, a verb plus a particle. Depending on the category of the particle, a multi-word verb is a prepositional verb (if the particle is a preposition) or a phrasal verb (if it is an adverb). The main characteristic of prepositional verbs, which makes it different from phrasal verbs, is that the particle can never be separated from the verb.

Therefore, prepositional verbs are those that contain a preposition, which is always followed by its nominal object, either a noun group or a pronoun. Say, a more practical definition of prepositional verbs could be, as I explained in class, that they are verbs that always go with a certain preposition. Let's see some examples:

The exam consists of a written part and an oral part.
Your travelling abroad this summer will depend on your school final marks.
When someone speaks to you, please look at their face.
Prince Phillip got married to Letizia Ortiz.
John is very friendly. He always sympathises with everybody's problems.
They were listening to the news while I was waiting for the taxi.

As you can see in the above examples, these verbs always go with these prepositions and the meaning is always the same. However, there are some prepositional verbs which can change preposition with an implication of a change of meaning. For example:

I couldn't go out yesterday because I had to look after my sister. (look after = watch)
She lost my car keys and I looked for them everywhere in the house. (look for = search)
The police looked into him and discovered he was the murderer. (look into = investigate)

Remember: Prepositional verbs are not separable, that is, you cannot separate the verb from the particle, not even if the object is a pronoun:

John always dreams about Anna. (OK)
John always dreams about her. (OK)
John always dreams her about. (NEVER!!)


(Compare with phrasal verbs)
An article on Phrasal and prepositional verbs here.

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Homophones: Whose and Who's

Do you remember what I told you about homophones in class? Homophones are words that have different spelling but same pronunciation. The example I gave you was their, there and they're, all three pronounced /dea/. Other instances of homophones are your, you're /jo:/ or one, won /wAn/.

As regards relative pronouns, we should not leave aside two homophones that may cause confusion even to native speakers of English: whose and who's. The difference in form and meaning is obvious, the former is the relative adjective (Spanish 'cuyo-a,-os-as') and the latter is the contraction of the relative pronoun who and either the verb form is or has. Let's see this in the following examples:

I know a woman whose kids study here.
I know a woman who's been to Iraq twice.
I know a woman who's living in Iraq.

Some practice?
Exercise 1, Exercise 2.

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Task 1ºBach #1701: Relative Clauses

Complete the sentences with a relative pronoun or adverb.
1) Where's the restaurant ................you went to last night?
2) He doesn't like people ................are moody.
3) This is the cinema ..................I saw my first film.
4) I can remember the day .................I first started school.
5) These are the trousers ................I bought.
6) Is that the journalist ...................interviewed David Beckham?

Combine the sentences using relative pronouns or adverbs. Put the relative pronoun into brackets if you can omit it. Some can be defining and others non-defining clauses.
1) That's the girl. She spoke to me yesterday.
2) What's the name of the book? You wanted me to read it.
3) I rent a house. It's very small but comfortable.
4) The hotel was very expensive. We stayed in that hotel.
5) The car was stolen. It was a BMW.
6) The man smoked forty cigarettes a day. He died of a heart attack.
7) That's the building. I work there.
8) Those are the boys. Their mother works in the post office.
9) The businessman was very rich. I saw him last night.
10) That is the dog. Its owner is French.
11) Al arrived early. He went by moped.
12) The boys were brothers. They went by bus.
13) The girls were OK. They had pizza.
14) Sue and Karen went home early. Their fathers came to the café.
15) She remembered the day. Her baby dog was born on that day.
16) My parents organised a party. It was my birthday.
17) This is the mobile phone. It costs €300.
18) The Sierra Nevada are the mountains. I had a skiing accident.
19) This is the teacher. She is always friendly.
20) I met a boy. He can speak three languages.
21) She usually wears the designer clothes. I bought them for her birthday.
22) My brother has met a girl. Her boyfriend is English.
23) The hospital is very modern. She went there after her accident.
24) The trainers are now reduced in the sports shop. I bought them last week.
25) My sister is a fantastic swimmer. Her legs are very long.

Relative Pronouns & Adverbs

Hello pupils!

I hope this post will serve you as a reminder of last day's lesson on relative pronouns and adverbs.

(A) Relative pronouns
WHO: Person, Subject/Object, Defining/Non-defining
WHOSE: Person/Thing, Possessive, Defining/Non-defining
WHICH: Person/Thing, Subject/Object, Defining/Non-defining
THAT: Person/Thing, Subject/Object, Defining
"Zero": Person/Thing, Object, Defining

We call "zero-pronoun" to the omission of the pronouns who, which or that. This omission is only possible when the pronoun is not the subject of a defining relative clause. It is not acceptable in non-defining clauses.

Some examples (in grey colour the relative clauses):
I told you about the woman who lives next door.
The woman who you saw with me yesterday is Mary's sister.
Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?
I'm going out with the girl whose mother is a nurse.
The teacher that punished Tom without going out to the playground is new here.
I don't like the table that stands in the kitchen.
The car I bought last month is second-hand.

Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms -who, which, that- but you can identify them as follows: if the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the pronoun functions as a subject. Subject pronouns must be always used: The apple which/that is on the table. However, if the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb but by a noun or pronoun, it functions as an object. Object pronouns can be omitted in defining relative clauses, which are called Contact clauses: The apple (which/that) George lay on the table.


(B) Relative adverbs
WHERE: Place, Adverbial, Defining/Non-defining
WHEN: Time, Adverbial, Defining/Non-defining
WHY: Reason, Adverbial, Defining

A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus a preposition, when denoting time or place. This often makes the sentence easier to understand:

This is the shop in which I bought my bike = This is the shop where I bought my bike
I'll never forget the day on which I met you = I'll never forget the day when I met you
That's the reason for which we met yesterday = That's the reason why we met yesterday


For practice:
Exercise 1, Exercise 2, Exercise 3, Exercise 4

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'Gone to' or 'Been to'?

Did you know that the verb 'to go' has two different irregular past participles? Yes, one is gone and the other one is... been ! Wow, what a confusion! So, when is been the past participle of go and when of be? Look at the examples below:

(a) I've gone to London.
(b) I've been to London four times.
(c) I've been in a Thai restaurant four times.

In sentences (a) and (b), the infinitive of the past participles is go. Notice that the place is introduced by the preposition 'to'. However, in sentence (c), the infinitive of the past participle is be, so the place goes after the preposition 'in'.

Have been is used to talk about completed visits, whereas Have gone implies that the person has not yet returned. Look at these situations.

Have you ever been to America?
Yes, I've been to America once. (= I've gone and returned)

Where is Tom?
He's gone to America. (= He's gone and he's still there, he hasn't returned yet)


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Present Perfect Simple vs. Present Perfect Continuous

Hi there!

This week we've studied the contrast between the two Present Perfect forms, i.e. Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Progressive or Continuous. Did you understand all my explanations in class? Yes? Not quite? Umm Don't worry. I'll try to make all this clear in this post. First, look at the following examples:

(a) I've written five letters this week.(b) I've been writing for five hours.
Both tenses are used to express that an action began in the past and is still going on or has just finished. In many cases, both forms are correct, but there is often a difference in meaning: we use the Present Perfect Simple mainly to express that an action is completed or to emphasise the result. We use the Present Perfect Progressive to emphasise the duration or continuous course of an action.


Result or Duration?
Do you want to express what has happened so far or how long an action has been going on yet?
Present Perfect Simple for result (signal words: what?, how much?, how often?):
I've written two poems (how many poems have you written?, what have you written?)
I've been to London twice (how often have you been to London?)

Present Perfect Continuous for duration (signal words: how long?):
I've been writing for an hour (how long have you been writing?)
She's been working here since last Monday (how long has she been working here?)

Completion or Duration?
Do you want to highlight the completion of an action or its continuous course (how has somebody spent their time)?
Present Perfect Simple for emphasis on completion:
I have done my homework (= my homework is completed now)

Present Perfect Continuous for emphasis on duration:
I have been doing my homework (= that's how I've spent my time, maybe I haven't finished it)

Longer periods or Shorter periods?
Present Perfect Simple for longer periods which somehow relate to permanent situations:
John has lived in this town for ten years (= he's a permanent resident in this town)

Present Perfect Continuous for shorter periods which somehow relate to temporary situations:
John has been living here for two months (= maybe he's a temporary resident in the town)

Don't forget!!
Stative verbs can only be used with the Present Perfect Simple, for they do not admit continuous forms: be, have, feel, hear, know, notice, realise, think, believe, understand, want...

For practice:
Exercise 1, Exercise 2, Exercise 3, Exercise 4

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